"A Light to Lighten the Gentiles"
Though I will focus on the image's visual composition, presenting textual sources alongside their visual counterparts creates a window through which to tentatively reconstruct the sequence as an audio-visual experience, particularly as a remediation of scripture. As I discuss here, Carpenter and Westley included references to Bible passages in their catalog of slides. Audiences familiar with Bible stories, particularly as portrayed in the first seven sliders of the lecture set, would spot visual parallels between figures from the Old Testament and Christ. To an uninitiated audience, the passages from which these scenes are taken make this connection explicit; for this reason, it is likely that Williams' quoted or paraphrased longer passages of scripture instead of the solitary verse referenced in Carpenter and Westley's catalog. Williams’ context and proclivity for studying Polynesian languages suggests that he gave the narration for the lantern show in Samoan. As a seasoned translator, Williams would have been able to provide Samoan approximations for the transitions and metaphors in the King James translation of the Bible. For clarity, I will quote from the King James version of the passages depicted in Williams lantern show.
As I will show, reading scripture throughout could register as hypermediated screen experience because the passages include references to other portions of the Bible. Phrases like “for thus it was written”, which appears in Matthew 2:5, emphasize the text as the medium through which prophecies were recorded and preserved. Such transitions preserve the textuality of scripture, even though it is being presented in an audio-visual format. Other narrative cues couch intertextuality in more embodied terms. Transitions like “that which was spoken by Jeremiah the prophet” (Matthew 2:17) remediate the implied act of speaking through an aural medium, the narrator’s voice. Respeaking prophecy, particularly during the opening sequence of scriptural slides, ultimately downplays the role of text as mediator and structures a more immersive audio-visual experience. Overall, the scriptural passages that accompany the slides offer more opportunities to remediate conversations between the figures on screen than to describe prophecies as text. This tendency suggests that the lantern show as a whole oscillated between immediacy and hypermediacy but erred on the side of immersion, an effect that would have significant theological ramifications for Williams. The lantern show's predilection toward immediacy is further reinforced by the total darkness required to operate an improved phantasmagoria lantern.
Christ as Messiah
The sequence opens with five images that portray Christ as the fulfillment of Old Testament prophecy, starting with the Annunciation.A version in the author's care and in the National Science Museum's copy depict Mary and the Angel Gabriel surrounded by clouds that resemble the bilious incense in the Holy of Holies and Christ's post-resurrection appearance to the disciples gathered in Emmaus. As one of the few images in the set which consistently contains scenery, the Annunciation's relatively bright composition conveys a sense of Christ's role as the light of the world through blinding radiance. In the accompanying passage for the image, the angel Gabriel paraphrases Isaiah who described the coming Messiah as the son of God, the heir to the throne of David, and king who would reign forever (Isaiah 9:6-7, Luke 1:28-38). Compositionally, this image is the most explicitly typological in the New Testament portion of the set in the ways that it creates parallels between Christ and figures in the Old Testament. The swaddling-sized piece of white cloth draped over the side of the basket at Mary's feet parallels Moses in the tar-coated reed basket. Seeing Jesus as a type of Moses emphasizes Christ role as a deliverer; the movement of Israel from Egypt to the Promised Land finds ultimate fulfillment in the holy family's flight to Egypt and eventual return to Judea after Herod's death.
The source passage for this image of the Nativity—Luke 2:16—contains no direct references to the Old Testament, but other Gospels make the parallel more explicit. Matthew's account of the Magi includes Micah's prophecy:
If this depiction of the nativity contains typological imagery, the reference is rather oblique. The shepherd's fur clothes and wavy grey hair seem almost feminine, for they are strikingly similar to Eve's appearance in the first slide of Carpenter and Westley's scriptural set. If read as a double of Eve, the shepherd's presence conveys as sense of two mothers—Eve as the mother of all living and Mary as the mother of the Savior. The re-engraving of this image contrasts the humble setting of the stable with the shepherd’s kneeling and marveling at the child, emphasizing Christ as a figure worthy of worship.But thou, Bethlehem Ephratah...out of thee shall he come forth unto me that is to be ruler in Israel; whose goings forth have been from of old, from everlasting (Micah 5:2, Matthew 2:6).
In the original engraving, Christ's body language echoes the cherub-like Christ in Renaissance art. Christ's upward gaze towards the Eve and the shepherd conveys compassion. Pacific Islanders might have seen similarities between god child and the carved wooden idols collected by Williams, including the fisherman's god in Henry Anelay's watercolor. In this scene, Jesus is approximately the same size as a portable wooden figure; his bent knees and hands clasping his chest find a South Pacific counterpart in the bulbous belly and chest of the fisherman's god. This posture is repeated in the next image, Christ brought to the Temple in Jerusalem forty days after his birth.
Simeon, whom the gospel of Luke describes as "a man of Jerusalem who was just and devout," holds Christ in his arms. Although his words of praise are not included in the verse listed in Carpenter and Westley's catalog, the passage from which this verse is taken would offer an irresistible visual pun for magic lantern adaptations of this moment.[1] According to Luke's account, Simeon sees Jesus and exclaims,
Including Simeon's prayer in the spoken narration that accompanied this image would not only clarify the narrative importance of the scene, but it would also call attention to the lantern show's South Pacific context. This image depicts Christ as “a light to lighten the Gentiles” both spiritually and literally. Since the Pacific Islanders in the audience would fall into the category of Gentile, quoting this passage breaks the fourth wall in the theatrical sense; Williams could inscribe his audience within this scriptural narrative by explicitly referencing their non-Jewish identity. Furthermore, the projected image of Christ illuminated by the magic lantern offered a means for spiritual enlightenment through its role as the sole source of light in the context of the lantern show. Such a moment would offer a break from an immersive viewing experience by foregrounding the presence of the audience and the mechanisms that create this visual experience.Lord, now lettest thou thy servant depart in peace, according to thy word: for mine eyes have seen thy salvation, which thou hast prepared before the face of all people; a light to lighten the Gentiles, and the glory of thy people Israel (Luke 2:29-32).
The next image returns the audience to a more immersive experience by inviting the narrator to emphasize the sound of his voice. The source passage in Matthew cites two prophecies: Hosea 11:1, which foretells the holy family's eventual return to Judea following their flight to Egypt, and Jeremiah 31:15, which finds its ultimate fulfillment in the slaughter of the innocents (Matthew 2:16). Each of these is predicated by a phrase which represents prophecy as spoken; first,
and second,...that it might be fulfilled which was spoken of the Lord by the prophet, saying... (Matthew 2:15)
In the text, these narrative cues remediate the aurality of the act of prophesying (“that which was spoken”) and Matthew's reiteration of these prophecies, “saying”. In King James' English translation, “saying” implies a presentism that contrasts with the past tense of the prophecy's creation. If he included these verbal cues in his narration, Williams would become the embodiment of Hosea and Jeremiah by giving voice to their prophecies, using sound to collapse distinctions between the moment represented on screen, the preceding moment of prophecy, and the subsequent presentation of these moments in the lantern show....then was fulfilled that which was spoken by Jeremiah the prophet, saying... (Matthew 2:17)
In the image of Mary, Christ, and St. John the Baptist, the figures on screen collapse narrative time through embodiment, particularly through their clothing. St. John's furry mantle and pilgrim's staff foreshadow his role as a “voice in the wilderness”, a fulfilment of Isaiah's prophecy (Isaiah 40:3, Matthew 3:3). As an adult, he would have “raiment of camel's hair, and a leathern girdle about his loins” (Matthew 3:4). Carpenter and Westley's slide maps his adult appearance onto his younger self through the visual vocabulary of his clothing. These garments not only anticipate his activities as an adult but create a visual parallel with Adam and Eve, the shepherds in the Nativity scene, and the Prodigal Son.
Christ as Teacher
The transition between Christ's childhood and his adult life is visually jarring—an image of Christ's baptism by St. John would be a more natural scene to follow the one above; keeping the same figures on screen would maintain continuity while conveying the passage of time. Instead, the first image in the sequence depicts Jesus interacting with a liminal figure who is neither fully Jewish nor fully Gentile. Structurally, the woman at the well is part of the double frame that encapsulates Jesus' parables. On the outer edges are two images of fallen women that bookend two miraculous scenes on the Sea of Galilee. Such nesting rests Christ's moral authority on his power over nature.The conversation between Jesus and the Samaritan woman at the well models a positive response to the gospel message. The woman raised cultural differences between Samaritans and Jews, particularly the primary location of temple worship (John 4:19-24). Despite these distinctions, she recognized Jesus as the Messiah based on his supernatural knowledge of her life. Jesus tells her that
The woman was so astonished by the accuracy of this statement that she gathers the town together, and the townspeople invite Jesus to stay for two days. As a result of the woman's actions “many more believed” (John 4:41). The implication for the audience to share the message that they are hearing through the magic lantern shows with others....thou hast had five husbands; and he whom thou now hast is not thy husband (John 4:18).
The image of Christ calming the storm may have been of particular interest to a South Pacific audience for they depict Christ as seafarer. Since Williams was giving his lantern show on a small island, it is entirely possible that the audience would have been within earshot of the ocean. If so, the sound of the waves crashing over the beach elides the historic and geographic distance between the Sea of Galilee and the South Pacific.
This parable positions liminal figures as emulatable models. The Good Samaritan practices charity in contrast to others who refused to help the mugged man. Like the Samaritan woman at the well, the image invites an action from the audience; in this case, to offer food, clothing, and financial support to those in need. The scene's bucolic setting emphasizes the moral teachings of this parable above the others through its careful attention to visual detail, for this style of image would have taken more time and care to paint than simply filling in the background with opaque, black paint.
Out of all the images in this set, the Lord of the Vineyard and the Labourer is perhaps the most obtuse, for it seems to match the title but not the source text. The verse quoted in Carpenter and Westley's catalog is part of a parable about a king who hosts a wedding party for his son. When the original invitees would not attend, he sends servants to fill the banquet hall with anyone they could find. Upon encountering a guest who is not appropriately attired, the king commands that his servants
The language of calling and choice foreground the theological concept of predestination, wherein God chooses whom he will save....bind [the guest] hand and foot, and take him away, and cast him into outer darkness, there shall be weeping and gnashing of teeth. For many are called, but few are chosen. (Matthew 13-14)
It seems more likely that this image is a representation of an earlier parable, also in Matthew, about a vineyard owner who hired laborers throughout the day and pays them all the same wage (Matthew 20:1-16). The composition of this image seems to be a closer match, for the man's outstretched palm looks ready to receive payment after a hard day's work with his sickle, and the rolled up scroll suggests the Lord's ledger. If this is the parable in view, it offers the audience a much more agential role in their salvation, for they would receive the same reward as all who profess faith in Christ no matter how late in life they convert.
What's unique about this image of the prodigal son is that it uses depth to move the audience through the narrative. The figures in the foreground, particularly the prodigal son, encapsulate the narrative arc of the first part of the parable. The shaggy fur pelt not only signals the prodigal son's poverty after squandering his inheritance but also visualizes his fall from grace by echoing the garments of Adam and Eve. His modest apparel contrasts the colorful robes of his father, the imposing stone grotto, and the finery of the feast laid out on the table behind them. The celebration is so sumptuous that a servant consults a list to make sure everything is in its place. Navigating from foreground to background not only parallels the actions described in the text but it also gives the audience the opportunity to excavate the underlying meaning of the parable. The joyful reunion of the prodigal son with his father reinforces the call to profess faith in Christ through the visual vocabulary of the feast. The re-engraved version of this image is much more sentimental. By eliminating the portico of the house, the scene focuses more intently on the father embracing his son. The image creates depth through the discarded pouch at the son’s feet, a marker that he has left his old life by the wayside.
The Trial of Peter's Faith moves back into the frame narrative which encapsulates the parables by returning to the Sea of Galilee. Here, Christ demonstrates his power over nature by walking on water and saving Peter when he begins to sink into the waves. Due to the engraver's almost comical mistakes, the real miracle seems to be that Christ is standing upright despite the fact he stands with arms akimbo and feet at impossible angles. A more cynical viewer would not be amazed to see a head detached from its body given Christ's dislocated and distorted limbs. The re-engraved version of this image corrects this issue by presenting Christ at the center of the image facing the audience with open arms.
Herodias with the Head of John the Baptist completes the sequence of images depicting Christ's ministry by anticipating the violence of Christ's crucifixion in John the Baptist's decapitation. Unlike Dandeson Crowther's comic slipper slide, there's no indication that Williams' audience interpreted this image as cannibalistic. For Williams, both the scriptural set and the martyrological slides contain graphic content. Williams hoped that images of Protestants suffering at the hands of Catholics would prevent his Samoan audience from converting to Catholicism should a priest arrive on the island. While not as explicitly graphic, Carpenter and Westley’s set includes an undercurrent of violence. The image of John the Baptist and of the Crucifiction are the most graphic, but the flight to Egypt gestures to the threat posed by Herod and his jealousy. These images seem rather sanitized when compared to the flames and impliments of torture depicted in illustrations of Actes and Monuments. I would argue that the violence contained in the scriptural portion of the set was not intended to function as a scare tactic; using negative reinforcement in this portion of the show risked deterring potential converts from professing faith in Christ. Instead, I would argue that the explicit and implied violence in the scriptural portion of the set heightened the graphic nature of the martyrological slides.The scriptural sliders create tension through threats of physical harm that builds to and is made explicit in the martyrological slides.
If read in this light, the images of John the Baptist foreshadow the gorey deaths visualized in the slides to follow. Williams may have devoted more time in his narration to setting up John the Baptist as the first Martyr. The scriptural sliders set up John the Baptist as pathetic in the ways that it creates an emotional tie with the figure on screen before introducing his death. The image of John the Baptist as a child not only serves a narrative function in that it introduces John as a major figure in the life of Christ but it also evokes a sense of domesticity and motherly love through Mary’s presence. Such an image of motherhood is contrasted by Herodias and Salome, who revel in John’s death.
Christ as Savior
The sequence of images that depict Christ's crucifiction and resurrection employ the visual vocabulary of radiance to express Christ deity.As the climax of the magic lantern show, the image of Christ crucified emphasizes his broken body through the absence of scenery. Jesus' humanity is further foregrounded by the graphic detail of his dribbling blood. The verse that accompanies this image in Carpenter and Westley's catalog indicates that this image captures Jesus' final words and death:
By this point in the evening, the visual rhythm of the sliders would have conditioned the audience to expect at least two, if not three, more images. Such expectations would mean that this image is not the end of the story; instead, it functions as a pivotal turning point.When Jesus therefore had received the vinegar, he said, It is finished: and he bowed his head, and gave up the ghost. (John 19:30)
The halo that wreaths Christ's head in the moment of his death is repeated in the blinding radiance of
Though not explicitly identified as an angel, the light emanating from him (and the added wings) in this visual representation parallel the appearance of Gabriel in the annunciation. The discrepancy between scripture and the image may have been an engraver's error, for he may have engraved an image of a man sitting on the right side, but the image was reversed when printed. This mistake could also be due to the way the glass was inserted within the wooden frame....a young man sitting on the right side, clothed in a long white garment... (Mark 16:5)
Without scenery, Christ's body becomes the focal point for the audience and the figures on screen. Mary Magdalene and the other Mary gaze at the wounds in Christs feet, side, and hands, inviting the audience to adopt a similar posture of wonder and worship.
The blinding radiance of the image of the Disciples at Emmaus echoes the bright composition of the opening image of the gospel sequence. The earthenware jug and the food on the table indicate a more domestic scene, creating a parallel between the altar-like table in this image and Mary's prie dieu in the Annunciation. The billowing clouds in this image conflate Christ's appearance to the disciples at Emmaus and his Ascension on the mount of Olives. As part of a missional magic lantern show, it would appropriate to end with the Great Commission, in which Jesus commands
Quoting this passage would not only foreground the presence of the missionary who followed this command, but it also brings Christ into the space of the audience through the missionary's voice. By restating the Great Commission aloud, the missionary momentarily embodies Jesus in order to simulate for the audience the disciple's experience of hearing Christ's command with the assumption that the audience would profess faith in Christ and share their newfound beliefs with others.Go ye therefore, and teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost: teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I have commanded you: and, lo, I am with you always, even unto the end of the world. (Matthew 28:19-20)
When taken as a whole, the sequence privileges immersion, even as it remediates scripture. For Williams, this effect ultimately undermined Williams' beliefs, so much so that parts of his letter were excised when published.
Why is this page black?
[1] A late Victorian New Testament in Samoan indicates that the metaphor of Christ as a bright light was preserved in translation. To what extent this metaphor carries with it the same connotations in Samoan as in English is unknown to me.
